Socioculturalism (Social Constructivism)

Used interchangeably with the social constructivist theory of learning, the sociocultural theory of learning and teaching is widely recognized in fields of educational psychology and instructional technology. As mentioned in the previous chapter, all constructionists believed that the learning theories like behaviorism and humanism did not adequately represent the actual learning process. Where the cognitive constructionists focused on the individual creating knowledge for themselves through inquiry, exploration, and individual experiences, the social constructivists focused on the individual creating knowledge and higher-order thinking skills through social interaction and culture.

Though John Dewey’s work had some crossover between the two groups, it was mainly the work of Lev Vygotsky and Alexei Leontiev that were foundational to the sociocultural movement. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist and the founder of sociocultural theory, believed that human development and learning originate in social and cultural interaction. In other words, the ways people interact with others and the culture in which they live shape their mental abilities. Leontiev, a Russian psychologist, philosopher, and the originator of Activity Theory, highlighted the idea that learning is fundamentally influenced by the social, cultural, and historical environments in which it occurs. According to his theory, meaningful learning emerges through active engagement in tasks that incorporate tools, collaborative efforts, and interaction with the surrounding context.

Sociocultural theory is considered primarily a developmental theory. It focuses on change in behavior over time, specifically on changes that occur as individuals mature from infancy, to childhood, to adolescence, and finally to adulthood. The theory attempts to explain unseen processes of development of thought, of language, and of higher-order thinking skills with implications to education in general and is especially valued in the field of applied linguistics. The theory’s focus on a developing child is the reason for referring to a child or children when discussing theoretical underpinnings throughout the text. However, because many implications and practical applications related to sociocultural theory are applicable to learners of all ages, when implications are discussed, the object is generally a learner or learners.

The term sociocultural theory represents a variety of theoretical positions and perspectives. This chapter will briefly introduce the theory’s origins, identify the fundamental tenets of the theory with general implications, review strengths and limitations, and discuss implications related to instructional design.

Origins of Sociocultural Theory

Origins of sociocultural theory are most closely associated with the work of a Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934). Vygotsky’s work contains a central scope focused on the social aspects of acquiring knowledge. Vygotsky believed that learning happens best through social interaction and is deeply influenced by culture. His idea of the Zone of Proximal Development showed how learners can grow and achieve more with the guidance of others, whether it’s from teachers or peers, by working together and building shared understanding. Leontiev, a Russian psychologist, philosopher, and the originator of Activity Theory, highlighted the idea that learning is fundamentally influenced by the social, cultural, and historical environments in which it occurs, and that the individual’s motivations and complexity should also be accounted for. According to his theory, meaningful learning emerges through active engagement in tasks that incorporate tools, collaborative efforts, and interaction with the surrounding context. Each of these theorists and their theories will be covered in future chapters.

Fundamental Tenets of the Sociocultural Theory

Socioculturalism is grounded in the assumption that cognitive development is inherently tied to the social and cultural contexts in which individuals operate. It posits that learning is not an isolated process but a deeply collaborative one, facilitated through meaningful social interactions with peers, adults, and cultural tools. Vygotsky’s work emphasized that the tools and signs provided by a culture, such as language, art, and symbols, mediate human cognition and shape individual thinking. Additionally, socioculturalism assumes that development varies across cultures and historical contexts, rejecting a one-size-fits-all approach to learning and instead valuing diversity as a resource for cognitive and social growth. These assumptions highlight the importance of constructing educational environments that are both inclusive and responsive to learners’ diverse social and cultural backgrounds.

There are three fundamental concepts that define sociocultural theory.

Social Interaction Plays an Important Role in Learning

Social interaction is foundational to learning in Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. He argued that cognitive development is deeply rooted in social contexts and originates in the interactions between individuals. Social activities, such as those between parents and children or teachers and learners, provide the framework for developing higher-order thinking skills (Driscoll, 2000). Guided participation, where learners engage in collaborative activities with more knowledgeable others, exemplifies how social contexts shape cognitive development (Rogoff, 1990). Vygotsky’s concept of internalization illustrates how socially shared experiences become internal cognitive processes through enculturation (John-Steiner & Mahn, 1996, p. 192).

Language is an Essential Tool in the Learning Process

The second important notion on which Vygotsky elaborated is related to the role of language in the learning process. Vygotsky reasoned that social structures determine people’s working conditions and social interactions, which in turn shape their cognition, beliefs, attitudes, and perception of reality (Miller 2011). According to Vygotsky, social interaction introduces learners to language, which begins as external communication (social speech) and evolves into private and eventually inner speech. These stages of speech development enable learners to regulate their thinking and solve problems independently. Semiotic mediation—the process of using tools like language, systems of counting, conventional signs, works of art, etc. to co-construct knowledge—is facilitated by educators and play a transformative role in cognitive development and problem solving (john-Steiner & Mahn, 1996). This means that children and learners do not need to reinvent already existing tools in order to be able to use them. They only need to be introduced to how a particular tool is used and then they can use it across a variety of situations, including novel events (Scott & Palincsar, 2013).

Learning Occurs Within the Zone of Proximal Development

According to the theory of socioculturalism, the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) represents the sweet spot where learning happens most effectively. It’s the space between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with the guidance of a more knowledgeable individual. Vygotsky argued that teaching within the ZPD allows learners to develop new skills they can eventually use on their own. Providing sensitive instruction and guidance within the ZPD allows a learner to develop skills and strategies they will eventually apply on their own in other situations, which is characteristic of developing higher cognitive skills (Vygotsky, 1978). The role of a learner’s social partner is also critical since the type of social interactions, tools they use, and skills they practice determine the outcome of the collaborative experience, which could lead to a normal and accelerated development as well as to developmental delays and an abnormal development (Driscoll, 2011). Thus an ideal partner, whether an adult or a peer, should be advanced enough in knowledge or skill to promote learning and at the same time be able to interact within the zone not too far beyond the learner’s reach. Additionally, partners in a successful collaborative activity share a degree of common understanding about the task, a common goal, described as intersubjectivity. It is not sufficient for the partners to merely work together, they must co-construct the problem’s solution though coordinated effort, which implies shared power and authority over the process (Driscoll, 2011). Scaffolding, added to the theory by Bruner, Ross, and Wood in the 1970s, brings this concept to life by offering customized support that evolves as the learner grows more capable (Puntambekar, 2009). This process encourages learners to take on progressively complex challenges, ensuring their development is both meaningful and lasting. Dynamic assessment, which considers both independent achievements and the potential unlocked through support, highlights the importance of recognizing and leveraging the ZPD to maximize learning outcomes.

Relevance to Instructional Design

Instructional design grounded in sociocultural theory places a strong emphasis on creating learning environments that prioritize social interaction, scaffolding, and the strategic use of cultural tools. Learning, according to this theory, is inherently collaborative, with students benefiting from guided participation with teachers, peers, and culturally significant artifacts. By incorporating these elements, instructional designers can ensure learners internalize knowledge through meaningful social exchanges and interactions. As with cognitive constructivism, instructors play a critical role in putting these strategies into action in their unique classrooms, so instructional designers need to collaborate with the instructor when designing instruction that aligns with socioculturalism. Three major implications of sociocultural theory to instructional design include: focus on the individual learner, use of effective pedagogies centered around collaborative practice and communities of learners, and attention to funds of knowledge.

Focus on the individual learner

The sociocultural theory suggests a different dynamic for the relationship between the learner and the teacher than is currently typical in a school setting. The learner takes on more responsibilities such as determining their learning goals, becoming a resource of knowledge for peers, and being collaborators in the learning process. The teacher is viewed as a guide, an assistant, and a facilitator of learning rather than a transmitter of knowledge or an enforcer of rules (Grabinger, Aplin, & Ponnappa-Brenner, 2007). A critical aspect of this approach is scaffolding within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Designing instruction with the ZPD in mind allows for tailored learning experiences that meet individual needs while fostering continuous growth.

Most instructional design models, such as ADDIE, take into consideration only the common learner, tying learning with concrete and measurable objectives. Recently, a strong call has been issued for a complete shift in our education and instructional design approaches requiring a learner-centered instruction to reflect our society’s changing educational needs (Watson & Reigeluth, 2016). New methodologies, such as Universal Design for Learning based in the learning sciences recognize that every learner is unique and strive to provide challenging and engaging curricula for diverse learners. Watson and Reigeluth (2016) mention that there are two important features of learning-centered instruction: a focus on the individual learner and a focus on effective learning practices. Sociocultural theory and related methodologies may provide a valuable contribution to this effort as they focus on a learner in their social, cultural, and historical context and also offer sound pedagogical solutions and strategies that facilitate development of critical thinking and encourage lifelong learning (Grabinger, Aplin, & Ponnappa-Brenner, 2007).

Collaborative practice and communities of learners

Sociocultural theory allows instructional designers to apply principles of collaborative practice that go beyond social constructivism and create effective communities of learners through effective pedagogies. The sociocultural perspective views learning taking place through interaction, negotiation, and collaboration in solving authentic problems while emphasizing learning from experience and discourse, which is more than cooperative learning. This is visible, for example, in situated learning theory, which will be covered in a future chapter. Equally important is the use of cultural tools and signs, such as language, counting systems, symbols, and works of art, to mediate learning. These tools act as bridges between social interaction and individual cognition, helping learners grasp abstract concepts and apply them across various contexts. For example, using visual aids or collaborative discussions enables learners to internalize and personalize knowledge in ways that are meaningful and transferable.

In addition to the collaborative nature of learning, approaches grounded in sociocultural theory pay attention to and model the discourse, norms, and practices associated with a certain community in order to develop knowledge and skills important to that community (Scott & Palincsar, 2013). This approach is consistent with communities of practice and inquiry-based methods, which enculturate learners into the community of practice, highlighting the importance of effective pedagogical practices, quality of content, as well as strong social presence to increase the effectiveness of learning experiences and successfully facilitate critical thinking and higher-order learning outcomes (Garrison & Akyol, 2013). Furthermore, the emergence of new synchronous and asynchronous communication technologies and increased attention to computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) create new opportunities for applying sociocultural methodologies as their affordances allow quality collaboration and new ways of interacting in face-to-face, blended, and online environments (Garrison & Akyol, 2013).

Attention to learners’ funds of knowledge

Lastly, current instructional methodologies generally do not give much consideration for existing knowledge, established relationships, or cultural richness, commonly referred to as a learner’s funds of knowledge. Garrison and Akyol (2013) explained that when social presence is established as part of a community of inquiry, which requires recognition and use of these funds of knowledge, “collaboration and critical discourse is enhanced and sustained” (p. 108). Establishment of solid social presence further reflects in positive learning outcomes, increased satisfaction, and improved retention (Garrison & Akyol, 2013). Integrating sociocultural practices into learning design, for example through creation of communities of inquiry, spontaneously integrates a learner’s previous knowledge, relationships, and cultural experiences into the learning process and enculturate the learner into the new community of practice through relevant activities and experiences (Grabinger, Aplin, & Ponnappa-Brenner, 2007). Dynamic assessment also plays a vital role in sociocultural instructional design. By evaluating both what learners can achieve independently and with guidance, educators gain a clearer picture of their potential and can design more effective learning activities. This approach supports a more inclusive, culturally responsive educational environment, ensuring that instruction is adaptable to diverse learners’ backgrounds and abilities.

Another interesting solution to supporting social and cognitive factors in learning is the creation of a third space for discourse where a learner’s primary discourse related to home and informal social interactions is merged with the secondary formal discourse of school. This allows students to share in less formal environments, which lowers the affective filter, encourages exchanges, and gives students control over when, how, and what to share. Third-space discourse also encourages educators to recognize students’ personal experiences and to incorporate their students’ funds of knowledge into instruction, which results in increased conceptual understanding and use of academic language (Scott & Palincsar, 2013). When learners feel valued as participants in the community, when their prior experiences and knowledge are recognized and integrated into learning experiences, and when instruction reflects culturally sensitive practices, their motivation and satisfaction increases, and learning becomes deeper, lasting, and more meaningful.

Limitations of Sociocultural Theory

The first limitation of sociocultural theory is related to Vygotsky’s premature death as many of his theories remained incomplete. Furthermore, his work was largely unknown until fairly recently due to political reasons and issues with translation. The second major limitation is associated with the vagueness of the ZPD. Individuals may have wide or narrow zones, which may be both desirable and undesirable, depending on the circumstances. Knowing only the width of the zone “does not provide an accurate picture of their learning, ability, style of learning, and current level of development compared to other children of the same age and degree of motivation” (Miller, 2011, p. 198). Additionally, there is little known about whether a child’s zone is comparable across different learning domains, with different individuals, and whether the size of the zone changes over time. There is also not a common metric scale to measure ZPD (Miller, 2011). Finally, Rogoff points out that Vygotsky’s theories may not be relevant to all cultures as originally thought. She provides an example of scaffolding being heavily dependent on verbal instruction and thus not equally effective in all cultures for all types of learning (McLeod, 2014; Rogoff, 1990).

Conclusion

Leontiev’s consideration of the whole, complex learner, the culture and history of the learning environment, and Vygotsky’s notion of social origins of learning, the interrelationship of language and thought, and the notion of ZPD are all important contributors to the sociocultural theory. However, it is the practical applications of sociocultural theory that create learner-centered instructional environments where learning by discovery, inquiry, active problem solving, and critical thinking are fostered through collaboration with experts and peers in communities of learners and encourage self-directed lifelong learning habits. Presenting authentic and cognitively challenging tasks within a context of collaborative activities, scaffolding learner’s efforts by providing a structure and support to accomplish complex tasks, and providing opportunities for authentic and dynamic assessment are all important aspects of this approach. Sociocultural principles can be applied in effective and meaningful ways to design instruction across the curriculum, for learners of different ages and variety of skills, and it can be effectively integrated using a wide range of technologies and learning environments. Grounding instructional practices in sociocultural theory can help create efficient systemic approaches for teaching and instructional design which focuses on individual learners and effective pedagogical practices to develop empowered learners ready to successfully negotiate the rapidly changing era of information.

Reflection

Use the H5P Documentation tool below to answer the questions for Part 1 of your Oar and Rubber Boot assignment (ORB) on socioculturalism. Once you’ve worked through the H5P, select Create Document, and then copy/paste the document into your ORB Google doc for this theory. You’ll complete Part II of this assignment in your Google doc.

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