Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Dave Smith

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Dave Smith

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

Identify the levels of the hierarchy of needs
Identify the fundamental assumptions of the hierarchy of needs
Identify the fundamental differences between humanistic, behaviorism and psychoanalytical psychology.
Identify educational design processes associated with the hierarchy of needs

Introduction

Overview

While many theories of motivation relate to basic biological drives, individual characteristics, or social contexts, Abraham Maslow (1943) proposed a hierarchy of needs that spans the spectrum of motives ranging from the biological to the individual to the social. These needs are often depicted as a pyramid.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, visualized as a pyramid. From bottom to top the layers are: physiological, safety, belonging and love, esteem, cognitive, aesthetic, self-actualization, and transcendence. — Figure 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, visualized as a pyramid [Image description]

At the base of the pyramid are all of the physiological needs that are necessary for survival. These are followed by basic needs for security and safety, the need to be loved and to have a sense of belonging, and the need to have self-worth and confidence. The top tier of the pyramid is self-actualization, which is a need that essentially equates to achieving one’s full potential, and it can only be realized when needs lower on the pyramid have been met. To Maslow and humanistic theorists, self-actualization reflects the humanistic emphasis on positive aspects of human nature, (Francis & Kritsonis, 2006; Maslow, 1943).

Importance

Maslow saw people as being inherently good and that as humans we all have the desire to improve ourselves. Maslow’s theory is based on the premise that human beings are motivated by needs ranked in order hierarchically. Some of these needs are simply essential to all human beings. When a basic need is satisfied, we begin to seek higher-order needs. Eventually, by meeting lower level needs we can move on to self improvement, or what Maslow called “Self-Actualization”. In his eyes, Maslow saw this as a way to focus on the part of motivation that moves us towards achieving our whole purpose and not just as a tool to help us move beyond past trauma as with the other psychological theories of the time.

The importance of meeting lower level needs to be able to achieve higher level needs can be translated into education as well. Students struggling with food insecurity or financial insecurity may not be in the correct mindset to learn and develop academically. By ensuring lower level needs are met, we can help students reach a higher potential.

Origins of the Learning Theory

Founder

Abraham Harold Maslow (April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist who was credited with creating the Hierarchy of Needs, a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs by level of priority, culminating in self-actualization. Maslow was a psychology professor at Brandeis University, Brooklyn College, New School for Social Research, and Columbia University (The New York Times, 1970). He stressed the importance of focusing on the positive qualities in people, as opposed to treating them as a “bag of symptoms” (Hoffmann, 1988).

Born in 1908 and raised in Brooklyn, New York, Maslow was the oldest of seven children. His parents were first-generation Jewish immigrants from Kiev, then part of the Russian Empire (now Kyiv, Ukraine), who fled from Czarist persecution in the early 20th century (Boree, 2006). Maslow rarely got along with his mother and eventually developed a strong revulsion towards her. He is quoted as saying, “What I had reacted to was not only her physical appearance, but also her values and worldview, her stinginess, her total selfishness, her lack of love for anyone else in the world—even her own husband and children—her narcissism, her prejudice, her exploitation of everyone, her assumption that anyone was wrong who disagreed with her, her lack of friends, her sloppiness and dirtiness…” (Hoffmann, 1988). It was through his own mistreatment as the son of Jewish immigrants, and his mothers prejudice and selfishness, that Maslow began to research what motivates people towards a higher purpose.

Historical Context

Maslow’s Humanistic Psychology arose in the 1950’s in answer to the two prominent psychological theories of the time: Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory and B. F. Skinner’s Behaviorism (Benjafield, 2010).

Some elements of humanistic psychology are:

to understand people, ourselves and others holistically (as being greater than the sums of their parts)
to acknowledge the relevance and significance of the full life history of an individual
to acknowledge the importance of intentionality in human existence
to recognize the importance of an end goal of life for a healthy person

Comparison with Other Theories

Through disagreement with the predominant theories at the time, developed by Freud and Skinner, Maslow was able to formulate the main points of humanistic theory. Maslow had the following criticisms of the two main theories at the time:

Freud’s psychoanalytical theory was deterministic, meaning that it attributed the behavior of people to unconscious desires and that their behavior was ultimately outside of their control (Khan Academy, 2013).
Skinner’s behaviorism was too focused on outside rewards and consequences to drive motivation and did not rely enough on intrinsic feedback mechanisms.
Freud and Skinner’s theories focused only on individuals with mental conflicts (pathological) rather than all individuals (well and unwell).
The other two theories focused too much on the negative traits of human beings, rather than focusing on the positive power Maslow believed individuals to have.

As a result of the perceptions he had regarding the theories of his time, when Maslow developed his own theory, he decided to focus on the conscious rather than the unconscious. He also wanted to explain how all individuals could reach their highest potential through achieving beyond their basic needs towards a higher purpose or higher power.

Fundamental Tenets of the Theory

Maslow described human needs as ordered in a hierarchy—a pressing need would need to be mostly satisfied before someone would give their attention to the next highest need. None of his published works included a visual representation of the hierarchy. The pyramidal diagram illustrating the Hierarchy of Needs, may have been created by a psychology textbook publisher as an illustrative device. This now iconic pyramid frequently depicts the spectrum of human needs, both physical and psychological, as accompaniment to articles describing Maslow’s needs theory and may give the impression that the hierarchy of needs is a fixed and rigid sequence of progression. Yet, starting with the first publication of his theory in 1943, Maslow described human needs as being relatively fluid—with many needs being present in a person simultaneously (Maslow, 1943). According to Maslow’s theory, when a human being ascends the levels of the hierarchy having fulfilled the needs in the hierarchy, one may eventually achieve self-actualization. Late in life, Maslow came to conclude that self-actualization was not an automatic outcome of satisfying the other human needs (Frick 1989; Maslow, 1967).

Human needs as identified by Maslow:

(Click the information bubbles in the image below to learn more about each level)

The bottom four levels are known as Deficiency needs or D-needs. This means that if there are not enough of one of those four needs, there will be a need to get it. Getting them brings a feeling of contentment. These needs alone are not motivating but rather seen as fundamental for living (Boeree, 2006). The top four levels are known as Building needs or B-needs. These needs move an individual away from basic survival and towards reaching their full potential. Achievement of one of these levels requires a higher level of motivation and can be viewed as becoming self fulfilled.

In contrast to the well-known pyramid, a number of alternative schematic illustrations of the Hierarchy of Needs have been developed. One of the earliest, in 1962, shows a more dynamic hierarchy in terms of ‘waves’ of different needs overlapping at the same time (Krech et al., 1962). As illustrated, the peak of an earlier main set of needs must be passed before the next ‘higher’ need can begin to assume a dominant role.

A dynamic version of the Hierarchy of Needs depicted as overlapping waves. — Figure 3. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs visualized as overlapping waves [Image description]

The waves model, shown above, may be better suited to the ideas formulated by Maslow. Achieving fulfillment of a need does not mean that need goes away, it simply means that we are now able to prioritize higher level needs above the lower level needs.

Strengths and Limitations of the Theory

Strengths

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has some solid strengths, especially when thinking about learning and motivation from a human-centered perspective. First, Maslow’s model looks beyond just rewards and punishments as seen in Behaviorism. It recognizes that people have complex, interrelated needs that influence their behavior. It acknowledges both basic survival needs and higher-level psychological and self-fulfillment goals. Second, the hierarchy is straightforward and makes sense intuitively, especially when presented as a pyramid. It’s easy to see why someone struggling with food and shelter might not be as focused on self-actualization and transcendence. Third, it has broad application in education, workplace motivation, healthcare, and even marketing. Understanding that people need security and belonging before they can thrive at higher levels is useful across many fields. Fourth, unlike the other popular theories of his time that focus only on fixing problems, Maslow’s model encourages thinking about how to help people reach their full potential. Finally, even though it’s often presented as a strict hierarchy, Maslow himself acknowledged that people don’t always follow the levels in order. This flexibility makes it adaptable to different contexts.

Limitations

While Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a good starting point for discussions about motivations it also has some limitations. First, if viewed as a rigid hierarchy, the idea that people must satisfy lower needs before moving up doesn’t always hold true. For example, artists or activists may pursue self-actualization (creativity, purpose) even while struggling with financial or safety concerns. The hierarchy assumes that needs are universal, but in reality, factors like trauma, privilege, or societal structures can shape what people prioritize. Second, Maslow developed his theory based on Western, individualistic values that emphasize personal growth and self-actualization. It may not translate to all cultures that personal achievement outweighs social belonging or group harmony. Third, while the model is widely accepted, there’s little scientific evidence proving that people actually progress through the stages in the way Maslow suggested. Motivation is often far more fluid and situational. Fourth, it is difficult to measure. How do we objectively determine when a need is “satisfied” enough for a person to move up? Needs like self-esteem and self-actualization are particularly hard to quantify. Finally, it doesn’t fully address motivation in the educational setting. In education, motivation is complex and influenced by things like curiosity, intrinsic motivation, and external incentives. These are not factors that neatly fit into Maslow’s framework.

Instructional Design Implications

Practical Applications

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs provides a useful lens for instructional designers by highlighting how learners’ basic and psychological needs impact their ability to engage with and benefit from instruction. Below are some examples of how to incorporate the different levels of the hierarchy of needs into lesson design and assessment.

Addressing Basic Needs (Physiological & Safety)

Lesson Design: Ensure students have access to learning materials in formats that accommodate different needs (e.g., digital access, printed copies, assistive technologies).
Assessments: Minimize test anxiety by providing clear instructions, practice opportunities, and supportive feedback. Flexible deadlines or alternative assessments can help students who might struggle due to external stressors.

Creating a Sense of Belonging (Love & Belonging)

Lesson Design: Foster collaborative learning through group discussions, peer feedback, and cooperative projects to build a sense of community.
Assessments: Use formative assessments that encourage dialogue, such as peer reviews or group presentations, rather than relying solely on high-stakes individual testing.

Boosting Confidence (Esteem)

Lesson Design: Design tasks with scaffolded difficulty levels to allow students to experience small wins before tackling more challenging concepts. Encourage self-reflection and goal setting.
Assessments: Provide constructive feedback that highlights strengths and areas for improvement rather than just pointing out mistakes.

Fostering Intellectual Curiosity (Cognitive)

Lesson Design: Design learning experiences that challenge students to ask questions, explore different perspectives, and make connections between ideas. Incorporate inquiry-based learning, research opportunities, and critical thinking exercises.
Assessments: Use assessments that go beyond rote memorization, such as problem-solving tasks, debates, or concept mapping, to evaluate students’ ability to synthesize and apply knowledge.

Inspiring an Appreciation for Beauty and Structure (Aesthetic)

Lesson Design: Create visually appealing and well-organized learning materials that enhance engagement. Incorporate elements of music, art, storytelling, or real-world design to enrich content delivery.
Assessments: Allow students to express their understanding in creative formats, such as multimedia projects, artistic representations, or well-structured presentations that emphasize clarity and elegance in communication.

Encouraging Personal Growth (Self-Actualization)

Lesson Design: Include opportunities for creative thinking, problem-solving, and self-directed learning. Allow students to pursue topics of personal interest within the curriculum.
Assessments: Incorporate authentic assessments like case studies, simulations, or open-ended projects that let students apply their learning in meaningful ways.

Cultivating a Higher Purpose in Learning (Transcendence)

Lesson Design: Encourage students to connect their learning to a broader purpose, such as contributing to society, solving global challenges, or mentoring others. Service-learning projects, ethical discussions, and reflective journaling can help students see beyond their individual academic goals.
Assessments: Incorporate projects that emphasize real-world impact, such as community outreach initiatives, advocacy campaigns, or mentorship programs where students apply their knowledge to benefit others.

Case Study – Applying Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs to an educational setting

(Written with the help of Chat GPT)

Background
Lincoln High School, a diverse public school in an urban setting, struggled with student engagement and academic performance. Many students came from low-income backgrounds, faced food insecurity, and lacked stable home environments. Teachers observed that traditional instructional strategies were not yielding the expected outcomes, prompting the administration to explore new approaches rooted in educational psychology.

Intervention
The school adopted a framework based on Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, ensuring that students’ basic needs were met before expecting high levels of academic achievement. The intervention included:

- Physiological Needs: The school introduced a breakfast and lunch program that provided free, nutritious meals to all students, ensuring they were not distracted by hunger during lessons.
- Safety Needs: Security measures were enhanced, including anti-bullying programs, counseling services, and a mentorship initiative that connected students with trusted adults.
- Belongingness and Love Needs: Teachers fostered a more inclusive and supportive classroom culture by implementing cooperative learning strategies, peer mentoring, and student clubs to create a sense of community.
- Esteem Needs: Recognizing student achievements beyond academics, such as personal growth and leadership, helped build confidence. Teachers employed differentiated instruction to meet individual learning needs and provide meaningful praise.
- Cognitive Needs: Inquiry-based learning and project-based assignments encouraged curiosity and independent thinking.
- Aesthetic Needs: The school expanded its arts and music programs, offering theater, dance, visual arts, and digital media courses.
- Self-Actualization: With foundational needs met, students were more engaged in creative and higher-order thinking activities. Project-based learning and student-led initiatives empowered them to explore their interests and develop problem-solving skills.
- Transcendence: The school created a Global Citizenship Initiative, where students explored humanitarian efforts, sustainability projects, and social justice movements on a broader scale.

Outcome
Over two academic years, Lincoln High School saw a 20% increase in student attendance, a 15% improvement in standardized test scores, and a notable decline in behavioral incidents. Surveys indicated that students felt more supported and motivated to learn. Teachers reported higher levels of classroom engagement and fewer disruptions, reinforcing the idea that addressing fundamental human needs enhances learning outcomes.

Contexts

One of the benefits of the hierarchy of needs is that it can be applicable to any context. While the ideas above may be most easily executed in a classroom type environment, it would not be difficult to transition most of them to an online classroom. Some aspects of the hierarchy, like physiological and safety needs, may be difficult to monitor or change through an online platform. When we are not in a face-to-face environment I may not be able to hand my student food or ensure their safety. As an online instructor, this would require an understanding of the resources that are available to online students. For instance, are there scholarships or grants available to provide food/shelter for students in need and what is my role as the instructor in providing those needs for my online students? As for the higher level needs (belonging, esteem, cognitive, etc) instructors should be able to facilitate for them in any environment. The group based activities would need to be facilitated in a way that encouraged interactivity, which can be more of a challenge in the online classroom. While the lowest level needs may be more difficult in an online setting, three needs listed above (belonging, esteem and cognitive), should already be foundational roles of any instructor in any setting.

Conclusion

Maslow’s hierarchy remains relevant for motivation as well as educational applications, but it should be viewed as a dynamic, flexible guide rather than a strict ladder. The key is to create learning environments where students feel safe, connected, and motivated to reach their full potential. Learning is motivationally driven. Students’ ability to engage with material depends on their psychological and physical needs being met first. If students feel unsafe, hungry, or socially isolated, their cognitive resources may be limited. Self-actualization and transcendence are the ultimate learning goal. These highest levels align with deep learning, critical thinking, and creativity, emphasizing the need for autonomy and purpose in education. Since not all students are at the same stage of development or have the same needs, instruction should be flexible and responsive to each learner. Schools should prioritize student well-being through support services, inclusive policies, and safe learning environments. Teachers should foster a growth mindset by helping students build self-esteem and resilience. Designing instruction with scaffolding and mastery-based learning can help students build confidence and motivation before moving to more complex tasks. Collaborative learning can address belonging needs by fostering peer connections. In conjunction with AI-powered learning platforms, instructors can tailor content based on a learner’s progress, confidence level, and engagement, helping to meet both cognitive and psychological needs. Using Maslow’s hierarchy can guide educators towards building stronger students and a stronger educational landscape.

Match the hierarchy level names with their appropriate position on the pyramid.

In this practical application, align the paragraphs describing a level of the hierarchy of needs with its appropriate level on the pyramid. Note: the boxes on the left are not shown in order of hierarchy.

References:

Benjafield, J. G. (2010). A history of psychology (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Berger, K. S. (1983). The developing person through the life span. Worth Publishers.

Boeree, C. (2006). Abraham Maslow. Webspace.ship.edu. Archived from the original on April 30, 2016. Retrieved October 21, 2012.

Carlson, N.R., Miller, H.L., Heth, D.S., Donahoe, J.W., & Martin, G.N. (2007). Psychology: The science of behaviour. (4th ed.). Pearson Education Canada.

Francis, N. H., & Kritsonis, W. A. (2006). A brief analysis of Abraham Maslow’s original writing of Self-Actualizing people: A study of psychological health. Doctoral Forum National Journal of Publishing and Mentoring Doctoral Student Research, 3, 1–7.

Frick, W. B. (1989). Interview with Dr. Abraham Maslow. In Humanistic Psychology: Conversations with Abraham Maslow, Gardner Murphy, Carl Rogers (pp. 19–50). Wyndham Hall Press.

Hoffman, E. (1988). The right to be human: A biography of Abraham Maslow. St. Martin’s Press.

Khan Academy. (2013, September 13). Humanistic theory | Behavior | MCAT | Khan Academy [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3UcjojHetfE

Krech, D., Crutchfield, R. S., & Ballachey, E. L. (1962). Individual in society: A textbook of social psychology. McGraw Hill.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370–396.

Maslow, A. H. (1967). A theory of metamotivation: The biological rooting of the Value-Life. Journal of Humanistic Psychology. 7 (2): 93–126. doi:10.1177/002216786700700201.

The New York Times. (1970, June 10). Dr. Abraham Maslow, Founder Of Humanistic Psychology, Dies. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1970/06/10/archives/dr-abraham-maslow-founder-of-humanistic-psychology-dies.html

Image Descriptions

Figure 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs visualized as a pyramid. The image depicts a pyramid divided into eight colored sections, each representing a different level of human needs. From bottom to top: the largest green section labeled “physiological”; a purple section labeled “safety”; a pink section labeled “belonging and love”; a blue section labeled “esteem”; a gray section labeled “cognitive”; an orange section labeled “aesthetic”; red section labeled “self-actualization”; and a yellow section labeled “transcendence”. The pyramid illustrates a hierarchy, with basic needs at the bottom and more abstract needs towards the top. Each level slightly decreases in size towards the peak, creating an overall triangular shape. [Return to Figure 1]

Figure 3. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs visualized as waves. The image is a graph illustrating Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, represented by overlapping colored layers. The horizontal axis is labeled “personal development” and the vertical axis is labeled “needs intensity,” indicated by a double-headed arrow. Five colored layers denote different needs, each with varying widths along the development axis: green for “Physiological needs,” light green for “Safety needs,” yellow for “Love/belonging,” orange for “Esteem,” and red for “Self-actualization.” Each layer increases in height, peaks, and then tapers off as it progresses along the axis. A legend in the bottom right matches the colors to their corresponding needs categories. [Return to Figure 3]

Licenses and Attribution

“Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs” by Dave Smith is adapted from “10.1 Motivation – Psychology” by Openstax, “Abraham Maslow” by Wikipedia, “Humanistic Psychology” by Wikipedia, “Maslow’s hierarchy of needs” by Wikipedia, “Own work” by Philipp Guttmann and “Maslow’s Hierarchy” by EucalyptusTreeHugger all used under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and “Needs-Based Theories of Motivation” by Lumen used under a CC BY 4.0 license.

“Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs” is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

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