Keller’s ARCS Model of Motivational Design

Introduction to Keller’s ARCS Model of Motivation

Developed and revised by John M. Keller, the ARCS Model of Motivational Design is a two-part framework for influencing learner motivation and improving learning outcomes. The first part of the ARCS model, Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction, states the principles for evaluating how the instruction affects learner motivation and is a problem-solving template for gaining learner motivation. The second part of the model includes a 10-step design process, building awareness of and techniques to influence learner motivation into the instruction from the outset.

During the time that Keller began developing ARCS, instructional design was heavily influenced by both behavioral and cognitive-learning psychology, hence much attention was given to the utility of rewards, and how to organize content according to a learner’s cognitive style, respectively (Keller, 1979). While these are valuable, Keller recognized an unaddressed yet vital factor – the learner’s motivation to accomplish a task.  Theories that addressed aspects of motivation including, for example, expectancy-value, addressed strategies for modifying the learner’s motivational profile, rather than designing instruction that was motivating (Keller, 1979).

Prior to Keller’s work on motivation, designing instruction was akin to trying to build a bridge without a blueprint. While learning theories were helpful for conceptualizing mechanisms of learning, they provided no paradigm for either understanding or influencing learner motivation. Instructional design models largely ignored the learner, favoring a focus on environmental stimuli. ARCS was the first model to address the motivation of the learner as a factor in the learning process, bringing a new realm to the world of instructional design by providing a template for designing and improving instruction that, when utilized well, reliably increases learner motivation.

ARCS has been used successfully to improve motivation, retention, and learner outcomes in many countries (Austria, Ireland, Japan, Mozambique, and the USA, to name a few) and in e-learning, hybrid, online, asynchronous, and traditional learning environments (Keller & Suzuki, 2004)

The 5-minute video below provides a quick overview of Keller’s ARCS model.

Origins of the ARCS Model

As an Associate Professor of Instructional Design in the 1970s, Keller recognized and sought to build the missing links in instructional design, beginning with vast research of a variety of underlying motivational constructs, and a synthesis of the prevailing educational and educational psychology-related theories of the time. His goal was to develop a motivational design that could systematically produce replicable results over time in improving a learner’s motivation to learn, and instructional designers today are grateful for his success.

Keller created the ARCS Model of Motivational Design in 1987 (Keller, 1987), after publishing journal articles developing the concepts in 1979 and 1983 (Keller, 1979 and 1983). His work, which he described as a “macro-theory,” provided, for the first time, a theoretical basis for understanding and influencing learner motivation (Francom, 2010), and a blueprint to routinely improve a learner’s motivation by focusing on Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction (ARCS). This blueprint is routinely used today, and Keller’s updates to this model have continued to impact and improve instructional design practices.

Explore a timeline of the development and updates of the ARCS Model, below. 

Comparison with Other Theories

Before proceeding in our comparison of Keller’s ARCS model with other theories, it is important to define two key terms, theory and model, to ensure clarity. ‘Theory’ is related to perception and can be understood as a set of ideas or an intelligible explanation of facts, events, or of the principles and methods of a science or art, which is based on observation and reasoning (Harper, nd). The term ‘model,’ refers to manner or measure, and is a standard for imitation, pattern, or template (Harper, nd).

Take a moment to check your understanding of these terms.

Keller’s ARCS model has elements of theory, for it was indeed born out of research, or the ‘pursuit of knowledge through observation,’ and informs us regarding the principles and methods of the science of learning; however, it is also a model – a standard serving as a pattern or template. ARCS gives us a template for designing instructional material with the ability to influence motivation.

Keller synthesized many theories in developing the ARCS model, and was influenced by behaviorism, cognitivism, and humanistic and personality psychology. One of his students, Dr. Bernie Dodge, created the illustration below, showing the theorists and schools of thought that were foundational in developing the ARCS model (Waddington and Dell, 2018).

Click the hotspots to explore the theorists who influenced the ARCS model. 

The “Motivation Island” map you see below was updated by Waddington and Dell in 2018 to reflect the impact of emotions on motivation, and the influences of Kuhl and Zimmerman.

Click on the three hotspots below to learn more.

Fundamental Tenets of the Model

Because motivation is complex and multidimensional, the ARCS model, under the basic assumption that it is possible to affect motivation, provides strategies for a problem-solving process of creating and sustaining student motivation. Like the traditional instructional design process, motivational design includes a systematic process of:

• Identifying goals and motivational problems (Keller’s steps 1-4, the “Analyze” phase)
• Developing strategies for goal attainment and addressing motivational problems (Keller’s steps 5-8 and step 9, the Design and Develop phases, respectively), and
• Evaluating the outcome of the strategies (Keller’s step 10, the “Evaluate” phase).

In all settings, the purpose of motivation strategies is to help learners form the impression that success is possible if an effort is exerted (Keller, 1987). These strategies are used to address each of the four model components – attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. They are not meant to take away from the course objectives and should be aligned with the course delivery format and the instructor’s style. Ideally, strategies should create a gap between what the learners know and what they need to know (Keller 2017). Instructional methods such as the flipped classroom, problem-based learning, and project-based learning help to address this gap.

According to Keller (1983), the ARCS Model of Motivational Design suggests that an instructional designer can routinely improve a learner’s motivation to learn by focusing on Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction. [Image Description]

As we examine the four main components of ARCS, watch for the blue textboxes with examples of ARCS implementations for each component, beginning with the context for each scenario, below.

Attention

A learner’s attention is required before any learning can take place. Consequently, the first step in instructional design for motivation is to capture and sustain the learners’ attention. Keller (2010) describes three categories of attention-getting strategies: perceptual arousal, inquiry arousal, and variability. Perceptual arousal refers to capturing interest by arousing learners’ senses and emotions and is usually transitory. One of the most common ways to provoke perceptual arousal is making an unexpected change in the environment; example tactics include a change in light, a sudden pause, and presenting a video after text-based information in an online learning environment. Inquiry arousal, similar to maintaining situational interest, refers to a cognitive level of curiosity. Students are cognitively attracted to learning materials, for instance, when they contain paradoxical facts. Variability concerns variation in instructional methods. No matter how effective motivational tactics are, they lose their potency when used unvaryingly.

Methods to Attract Attention

Discover techniques to attract attention by clicking each category.

Try the challenge below to see if you can remember ways to attract attention; drag the boxes to the correct category.

Relevance

The second category, relevance, refers to making the learning experience personally relevant or meaningful. According to the goal theory, students engage in learning activities that help to attain their goals (Locke & Latham, 1984). Also, as described in expectancy-value theory and self-determination theory, the perceived value of the task is a critical antecedent of motivation (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992). One way to establish the perceived relevance of the learning materials is to use authentic or real-world examples and assignments. Simply relating the instruction to what is familiar to learners (e.g., prior knowledge) can also help learners to perceive its relevance. Learners need to understand how the instruction will benefit them both now and in the future. See the accordion below for more examples of how to relate relevance to increase learner motivation.

Methods to Relate Relevance

Click each category to discover strategies that relate relevance.

Remember how to relate relevance to your audience? Drag the box to the correct category to see!

Confidence

The confidence category is pertinent to self-efficacy and expectancies for the success of the expectancy-value theory. According to self-determination theory, the feeling of competence is one of the basic human needs (Ryan & Deci, 2000), so the goal is to organize instruction in such a way that the learner feels they have the skill and ability to accomplish the task or understand the content. If a learner perceives the content as being too difficult, they may not even try to learn the content, or they may not try their hardest because they expect to fail. Building confidence can be a delicate and careful affair, challenging the person to stretch themselves, but not so far that they are doomed to failure.

Strategies to enhance self-efficacy, such as scaffolding and experiencing success, can be applied to build confidence. Another way to enhance confidence is to foster learners’ belief that they have control over their performance. Autonomy support such as providing choices is an example.

Methods to Cultivate Confidence

Check your learning – can you remember how to cultivate confidence? Drag each box to the correct category.

Satisfaction

Learning must be rewarding or satisfying in some way, whether it is from a sense of achievement, praise from a higher-up, or mere entertainment. Structuring a course so that participants utilize learned skills in real-world settings applicable to the learners is one method for encouraging intrinsic motivation; others include learners experiencing a feeling of mastery, the pleasure of accomplishing a challenging task, and helping the learners attribute their successes to their effort.  High grades, certificates, and other tangible rewards are the most common extrinsic outcomes. However, for example, if a student receives a high score on a final exam because the test was extremely easy, an extrinsic reward may feel undeserved and therefore the extrinsic reward may not result in feelings of satisfaction. Satisfaction can also come from achievement, praise, and utilizing learned skills in everyday life.

Methods to Support Satisfaction

Test yourself on ways to support learner satisfaction by dragging the box to the correct category.

ARCS Model Updates

Although the original ARCS version remains heavily cited, Keller continued updating the model, developing later versions ARCS-V (2007) and MVP (2008). Each of the versions has stayed true to the belief that motivation is a complex and dynamic phenomenon which includes facets such as meta-cognition, desire, and persistence.

The MVP model (Motivation, which encapsulates all of ARCS, Volition, Performance) was formed to include performance as well as cognitive and emotional components that show a relationship between motivation, learning, and performance (Keller 2017). These updates recognize that even when motivation is high, stress and emotion can inhibit learning and therefore performance.

Volition is the action and attitudes that contribute to the effort persistence needed to help learners reach their goal, and aligns with other learning constructs such as mindset, resilience, and grit. Research on grit has been positively correlated with a higher purpose of learning (Angelo, 2017). Mindset is related to a student’s belief about their own intelligence and capacity to learn, which correlates to the confidence component of the ARC model. Because this is not part of the original model, we refrain from covering this in-depth here; however, it is a factor well-worth further study.

Strengths

Keller’s ARCS model of motivation is a template for using theory to craft instruction. Gleaning much from well-established theory and research, rather than just pointing out the value of learner motivation or drawing attention to the results (or lack thereof) when motivation is low, ARCS brings an entire framework of solutions to the table. The structured process and tangible tools offered by ARCS can be used in influential ways to help improve even intrinsic motivation. Research has proven time and again that the ARCS model is effective in vastly varied learning environments, from kindergarten to graduate school, the classroom to fully online instruction, and corporate training to healthcare as well as in many cultures around the world.

Online learning environments, specifically, require students to have a significant amount of self-direction and perseverance to be successful. In the ARC- MVP model these are aligned with volition. For cognitive presence to be established, relevance, reflection, and metacognitive processes need to be developed. There is also a significant need for feedback to guide students as they learn. Concerning teaching presence, the instructional design strategies and course planning components are key, and the strategies provided in the ARC models can support successful course delivery. Even in varied and challenging learning environments, ARCS can be applied to influence motivation resulting in increased student retention,

Limitations

Implementing parts of the ARCS model, such as tailoring instructive elements and individual feedback, can potentially be time-intensive, so instructors should factor this into the overall course, choosing the best use of the desired elements given the time they choose to devote to it. Reynolds et al (2017) point out that while motivation and learning are often looked at together, the presence of motivation does not guarantee that learning will occur. Although ARCS has been successfully applied in traditional, e-learning, distance learning, hybrid, online, and asynchronous environments, the complexity of learning environments has increased since the original design of the ARCs model. Variance in student demographics, multiculturalism, and student learning strategies may play a role in its currency in years to come. In addition, the rate at which technology increases and infiltrates learning environments may necessitate further updates to the strategies originally provided.

In a comprehensive literature review, Li and Keller (2018) indicated several areas for future research, including:

• Design-based research approach to motivation as opposed to experimental design
• Investigation of cognitive and psychological factors as they impact motivation
• Motivation in fully online learning environments
• Impact of cultural considerations on learner motivation
• Increased length of experimental time of studies, more longitudinal

Instructional Design Implications: A Systematic Design Process

Besides identifying the four major categories of motivational design, the ARCS model describes 10 steps for a systematic process of motivational design (Keller, 2010). Steps one through four correspond to the Analyze phase in the traditional instructional design process, steps five through eight are part of the Design phase, with steps nine and ten making up the Development and Evaluation phases.

Click on the arrows next to each design phase to discover the 10 steps of Keller’s design process.

Organize the design phases (in larger font) and steps (numbered) below, by dragging and dropping them in the correct order.

Conclusion

The ARCS Model of Motivational Design, created by John Keller, offers a powerful framework for enhancing learner motivation by focusing on four key elements: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction. By incorporating Keller’s model, including the 10-step design process, educators can create instruction that not only delivers educational content but also motivates learners by aligning with their needs and interests. The model’s practical approach has broad implications for instructional design, emphasizing the importance of tailoring learning experiences to foster intrinsic motivation.

Ultimately, Keller’s ARCS model provides both a theoretical understanding and a practical toolkit for improving learner motivation, contributing to more effective and engaging educational experiences.

Image Descriptions

Figure 1 – The image features a four-sectioned diagram with a central square surrounded by four trapezoids, each representing different concepts. The top trapezoid is labeled “Attention” and is colored in a pinkish hue. It lists strategies such as “Active participation,” “Variability,” and “Inquiry.” The right trapezoid, labeled “Relevance,” is in green and includes points like “Experience,” “Future Usefulness,” and “Choice.” The bottom trapezoid, labeled “Confidence,” is also in green, listing tasks like “Help students understand their likelihood for success” and “Grow the Learners.” The left trapezoid is labeled “Satisfaction” and is in a coral color, including ideas like “Skill Utility” and “Honest Reinforcement.” [Return]

Figure 2 – The image is a detailed flowchart illustrating a psychological processing model. It is divided into several segments, each representing different stages and components involved in motivational and volitional processing. The top section contains orange boxes labeled with various strategies such as “Motivational Strategies,” “Implementation Strategies,” and “Volition Strategies.” These influence the main section highlighted in blue, titled “Motivational and Volitional Processing.” This section includes elements like “Goals & Desires,” “Pre-Action Planning,” and “Actions.” “Mental Resource Management” and “Information and Psychomotor Processing” are also detailed with components like “Engagement,” “Sensory Inputs,” and “Working Memory.” The bottom section outlines the resulting stages, from “Effort Direction” to “Consequences.” Arrows connect these components, demonstrating the flow and interaction among different psychological processes. [Return]