Cognitivism

Introduction to Cognitivism

Cognitive learning theories cover a wide range of ideas from the work of many researchers. It is a continually developing field which has influenced and been influenced by the developments in different fields including instructional design, developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and increasingly cognitive neuropsychology. Cognitive learning theories focus on the ability of students to guide their own learning using mental strategies. The purpose of this chapter is to (a) briefly explore the origins of cognitivism, (b) discuss some key theorists of cognitivism, (c) explain some of the relevant cognitive processes identified within cognitivism, (d) describe the relevance of cognitivism to instructional design practices, and (e) offer some criticisms and limitations of this theory. Other learning theories related to cognitivism will be discussed in future chapters.

Origins of Cognitivism

Cognitivist learning theories are understood to have stemmed from the inadequacies of the behaviorist learning theories of strict stimulus and response training to fully explain how learning occurs. Petri and Mishkin (1994) point to the work of researchers Edward Tolman, Wolfgang Kohler, and Ivan Krechevsky on the role of expectations, insight, purpose, and hypothesis making in the early 1920s and 30s as the earliest forays into cognitivist research. However, it was not until the 1950s during the “Cognitive Revolution” that cognitive theories began to gain discernible traction and attention.

The definition and scope of cognitivism has evolved over the years. Early studies of cognition explored the active acquisition of knowledge as opposed to the more passive learner approach of behaviorism (Woolfolk, 2015). According to more recent views such as those of Ertmer and Newby (1994), “cognitive theories focus on the conceptualization of a student’s learning processes and address issues of how information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind” (p. 58). An early model of cognitivism, known as the two-store or dual memory model, refers to the interactions between working memory and long-term memory. The two-store (dual) model is now seen as simplistic and incomplete but serves as a starting point for understanding cognitive learning theories. As the field of cognitivism has expanded, more theories have been developed so that there is no universal cognitive model or theory of learning accepted by all cognitive scientists.

Some of the key theorists that contributed to cognitivism during this time were Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner, though both became better known for their work in the Constructivist moment. Jean Piaget’s studied the internal processes of thinking and learning, such as how children develop schemas and progress through stages of development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational). This laid important groundwork for cognitivist theories. In his earlier career, Jerome Bruner was a major figure in the Cognitive Revolution, focusing on the mental processes involved in learning and problem-solving. His book The Process of Education (1960) emphasized the role of cognition in learning and stressed the importance of understanding the mental structures that support knowledge acquisition. Bruner’s work on categorization and representation systems (enactive, iconic, symbolic) ties closely to Cognitivist ideas about how knowledge is organized and processed in the mind. You will learn more about both of these theorists in a future chapter.

Cognitive Processes

Though future chapters will discuss other cognitivist learning theories, such as Information Processing Theory, Cognitive Load Theory, Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction, and Bloom’s taxonomy in more detail, this section briefly explains the cognitive processes that is foundational to all of the learning theories related to cognitivism. These cognitive processes are related to the two-store (dual) memory model including (a) perception, (b) executive processes, (c) working memory, (d) encoding, and (e) long-term memory. These do not include all of the cognitive processes involved in learning, but these are the ones most commonly addressed in the cognitivist view of learning. Each process is complex and have entire books written about them, but this section will provide a working definition and description based on current knowledge that is most relevant to cognitivist learning theories.

Perception

The process of receiving information begins with some sort of sensory input: the sound of a bell, the smell of a rose, the touch of a feather, the taste of honey, or the sight of a friend. Each of the five sensory systems in our bodies has its own complex pathway for registering and assigning meaning to, or perceiving, that input. It is generally based on context and patterns of what is already known. The body receives large amounts of sensory data constantly since we touch, see, hear, taste, and smell all the time, even though we are not conscious to all of it at once. Sensory information stays only a very short time in the sensory register, though time estimates vary between less than a second to up to three seconds. Then the information is transferred to short-term or working memory (Schunk, 2012 p. 165; Woolfolk, 2015, p. 294).

Executive processes

Executive, or control, processes “regulate the flow of information throughout the information processing system” (Schunk, 2012, p. 166). These include the conscious processes and effort a person exerts in managing new information as it is presented including directing attention, planning next steps, and retrieving information from long-term memory for current use (Woolfolk, 2015, p. 298). It is often linked to working memory but has influence in all parts of the two-store model. Executive processes are also used to monitor understanding, select learning strategies, and regulate motivation. Here, attention is mainly the point of focus, as it fits chronologically in the two-store model, but keep in mind that cognitivists believe that learners play a conscious, active role in the learning process, so the executive control functions affect each stage of the process.

Attention is selective, which allows learners, with effort, to ignore or acknowledge pertinent sensory input. A learner would be overwhelmed if they tried to pay attention to every bit of competing sensory information at once. For example, in a classroom, one could see the notes on the board, the teacher’s new hairstyle, and the current heart-throb sitting two seats over, all while feeling an itchy shirt tag, and smelling the students returning from gym. Cutting through all of the sensory input, one needs to decide where to focus attention. There are individual differences in one’s ability to initiate and maintain attention, based on age, motivation, self-control, learning disabilities, and familiarity with the subject matter. The more familiar someone is with a skill or context, the less conscious attention they need to exert in processing and the more capacity they have to take in new information (Schunk, 2012).

Short-term or working memory

While short-term and working memory are not considered synonymous by all researchers, they are often used interchangeably. Schunk (2012) says that short-term memory is “a working memory and corresponds roughly to awareness, or what one is conscious of at a given moment” (p.179). Woolfolk (2015) distinguishes the two in that working memory “includes both temporary storage and active processing,” while short-term memory is usually referred to only as temporary storage of information (p. 297). It is generally agreed upon that short-term and working memory are limited in both capacity and duration, and information will be lost if it is not constantly rehearsed or transferred to long-term memory. Chunking, or segmenting, information into smaller pieces or groups may help reduce the load on working memory. For example, instead of one long string of numbers, telephone numbers are segmented into three sections.

Based on current understanding, there are four elements in working memory that process different types of sensory input: the central executive, which controls attention and mental resources; the phonological loop, which processes verbal and auditory information; the visuospatial sketchpad, which works on visual and spatial information; and the episodic buffer, which integrates information from the previous processors with information from long-term memory to make sense of it all (Woolfolk, 2015, p. 298). The processors can be used strategically, for instance to memorize a phone number given verbally.

Encoding

Encoding is the process of integrating new information processed in the working memory with what is already known to facilitate storage in the long-term memory. Encoding is influenced by organization, elaboration, and schema (Schunk, 2012, p. 187). For cognitivist researchers, encoding is where the magic happens. This is where all of the cognitive processes and executive control functions work together to “learn” new information and store it for future use.

Gestalt theory developed in the early 1900s refers to our “tendency to organize sensory information into patterns or relationships” (Woolfolk, 2015, p. 294). While the Gestalt theory is now essentially disproved, it provided early insight into human perception, showed that organized material is easier to recall, and revealed that humans will often impose order and meaning when there is none apparent (Schunk, 2012). Organizational strategies include creating hierarchies, mnemonic techniques, and mental imagery. Organization of material enhances memory, because it connects new information to what is already known, and when one piece of information is activated, or cued, it will activate connected information as well.

“Elaboration is the process of expanding upon new information by adding to it or linking it to what one knows” (Schunk, 2012, p. 188). Mnemonic devices can assist with elaboration by giving meaning to something easily remembered, such as using the first letter of the order of operations in math:

Schemas or schemata are personalized organizational structures. They encompass our general knowledge of specific situations that are used to plan our actions and interactions. They often prescribe a routine of actions based on our past experience (Schunk, 2012, p. 189). For example, a schema could be the process of ordering fast food.

Schemas can also assist in processing new information using a pre-existing or familiar structure. For example, a schema for a Hollywood romantic comedy would contain consistent elements. When watching the newly released summer blockbuster, a moviegoer would likely recognize familiar types of characters, themes, and plot points: the heroine, the love interest, the misunderstanding or obstacle to the relationship, and the eventual happy ending. Schemas can help learners encode by integrating new information with familiar knowledge and structure.

Long-term memory

Petri and Mishkin (1994) define memory as “the ability to store sensory information for later retrieval as images, thoughts and ideas” (p. 33). What is referred to as memory in common speech generally means long-term memory where images, thoughts, and ideas are stored for greater lengths of time. While short-term memory is limited in duration and capacity, long-term memory is, theoretically, unlimited in both. Information is generally stored in long-term memory as verbal representations, though as ideas rather than in specific sentences.

Information can also be stored as visual images. Stored information is accessed through cues, such as a question or request for information.

It is important for instructional designers to know that information is more easily accessed in long-term memory when it has been associated with meaningful connections, organized, and elaborated sufficiently (Schunk, 2012, p. 194). Frequent retrieval of information through review strengthens a learner’s ability to access that information in the future. The more automatically the information can be accessed, the more easily it can be retrieved and the more useful it can be in learning future related concepts.

Relevance to Instructional Design

According to cognitivist learning theories, a primary goal is to transfer knowledge to the learner in the most efficient way by allowing the learner to use the most effective cognitive strategies to encode information. Therefore, an instructional designer must consider both the learning task requirements and the current capabilities of the learner. By conducting a cognitive task analysis, the designer can determine the learner’s current level of learning skills and the most efficient presentation of information. Since cognitivist theories support the active involvement of the learner, goal setting, planning, and self-monitoring are strategies that should be encouraged. When processing new information, it can be helpful for designers to provide opportunities for learners to organize the material in ways that connect to prior knowledge or personal experiences (Ertmer & Newby, 1986, pp. 60-61).

A general principle of instructional design associated with cognitivism is that information will be more efficiently processed if it is provided in manageable pieces. Therefore, presenting information in a way that reduces the load on working memory will facilitate encoding in long-term memory. Use of feedback is also important. Unlike with behaviorism where the purpose of feedback is to strengthen cue and response, in cognitivism, feedback is used to provide the learner with information about the effectiveness of their strategies. Therefore, instructional designers should plan ways for learners to receive prompt feedback on their efforts so that the learners may more effectively plan ahead for future learning situations.

Criticisms and Limitations

One of the main criticisms of cognitivism is that it relies on processes we can’t directly observe. A lot of what it explains is based on inference, which can make it feel less grounded than approaches that focus on things we can see and measure. For example, experiments that study changes in memory often depend on people’s responses to questions or tasks. But those responses might be influenced by things like the way the experiment is set up or how participants interpret what’s being asked, not necessarily actual changes in memory. This makes it easy for subjectivity to creep in, raising questions about how valid or unbiased the findings really are.

Another limitation is that Cognitivism tends to overlook other factors that shape behavior. For example, when studying decision-making, it often focuses only on cognitive processes and ignores the roles of things like biology or the environment—like someone’s upbringing or life circumstances. This narrow view can feel overly simplistic because human behavior is so much more complex. Cognitivism’s focus on just a few processes, like thought, memory, and attention, can sometimes miss the bigger picture.

Conclusion

The cognitivist approach to learning assumes that the learner uses cognitive processes as an active participant in the learning process. The variety in the learning objectives and student capacities in any given situation require an instructional designer to have a breadth and depth of knowledge of instructional theories in order to meet the needs of each situation. There is no one theory to rule them all. (Apologies to J.R.R. Tolkien.) However, the principles of cognitivism provide useful paradigms for instructional designers as they create effective learning environments to meet the needs of a wide range of learners.

Reflection

Use the H5P Documentation tool below to answer the questions for Part 1 of your Oar and Rubber Boot assignment (ORB) on Cognitivism. Once you’ve worked through the H5P, select Create Document, and then copy/paste the document into your ORB Google doc for this theory. You’ll complete Part II of this assignment in your Google doc.

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