Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Andrew Egbert
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to…
- Identify the four key components of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.
- Recognize examples of the observational learning process.
- Match the components of Social Learning Theory to their functions.
- Interpret the results of the Bobo Doll Experiment.
- Select appropriate principles of Social Learning Theory for instructional design.
- Compare the effectiveness of Social Learning Theory in different educational contexts.
Introduction to Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory (SLT), alternately named Social Cognitive Theory, suggests that learning occurs when a person observes and then mimics actions performed by another person, which is called observational learning. While John Dollard and Neal Miller’s foundational work predated Bandura’s exploration of social cognitive principles, Bandura is considered the father of SLT as it is understood today.
“Give the pupils something to do, not something to learn; and the doing is of such a nature as to demand thinking; learning naturally results.” -John Dewey, Educational Reformer
Importantly, this theory helps to explain how learners can quickly learn new skills and behaviors through observation without resorting to trial and error. Additionally, it addresses how social interactions, and even peer pressure, influence learner behavior. However, Bandura’s research explored social aggression and anti-social behavior and suggested strategies for intervention.
Video Overview of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
This supplementary video presents a narrated overview of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.
Origins of Social Learning Theory
Neal Miller, a learning theorist, and John Dollard, a sociologist and psychoanalyst, studied social contexts and learned behaviors that influence learning. Their studies identified four areas influencing learned behaviors within social systems or the Four Fundamentals of Instrumental Learning. These fundamentals build on classical behaviorism by including drive, cue, response, and reward, which are instrumental for socially motivated learning (Neal Miller, 2021, February). Bandura’s later theoretical work is built upon the foundation of their research.
Dollard and Miller’s Four Fundamentals of Instrumental Learning:
- Drive: This state prompts a learner to act.
- Cue: The learner notices an opportunity for a reward or the chance of a punishment in the environment.
- Response: The learner’s response to the cue addresses the drive to act.
- Reward: The behaviorist reinforcement that increases the cognitive connection between the action and the reward (Neal Miller, 2021, February).
Albert Bandura (1925-2021), one of five children of parents who emigrated to Canada from Eastern Europe, hails from Mundare in Alberta, Canada. His hardworking parents lived lives of modest means, though they created a caring environment that celebrated life. Mundare is a small agricultural town about one hour east of the Edmonton metropolitan area, and like many such towns, it had a single school. However, Albert was extraordinary and soon outgrew the regional educational opportunities.
Bandura eventually received a Ph.D. in clinical psychology from the University of Iowa and worked within the scope of his degree at the Wichita Guidance Center. He later moved to Stanford University, where he began research into his areas of interest, including the study of anti-social tendencies in boys from middle-class families. These studies examined children’s self-regulation, self-efficacy, and self-reflection.
Bandura developed the concept of Reciprocal Determinism, which highlights how three elements in the learner’s environment affect each other. These include personal factors such as cognitive ability, biology, and the person’s level of efficacy in their environment. It should not escape notice that this category includes factors outside the learner’s control, such as biology and mental acuity. The second element is behavior, which refers to the type of reward or punishment (cues), or lack of either, that the learner expects to receive because of performing the desired actions. Lastly, the learner’s environment will influence the drive to act. Of course, it is essential to create a conducive learning environment.
Vignette: Reciprocal Determinism
Students feel encouraged to participate in a classroom filled with colorful posters and hands-on learning stations. One student, Jordan, initially shy, notices that his classmates eagerly raise their hands to answer questions. Seeing their enthusiasm rewarded with praise from the teacher, Jordan starts answering questions, too. Over time, he became more confident, and soon, he began leading group discussions.
“Education is what survives when what has been learned has been forgotten.” -B. F. Skinner, Behaviorist PsychologistIn its time, Bandura’s work on Social Learning Theory followed in the wake of the Second World War, when the ideas of cognitivism and sociopolitical considerations began to take root in the populace. This research coincided with the reconstruction era following the war and, notably, the Civil Rights Movement. This era was when middle-class families and perceived social conformity were the norm, granting Bandura ample subjects for his studies. Work in this area, shaped by the broader context of behaviorism, falls under the umbrella term cognitive revolution, along with contemporary theoretical luminaries such as Jean Piaget, B. F. Skinner, and Noam Chomsky.
Bandura’s research was carried out in an era when agrarian and manual labor tasks comprised a much larger portion of the workforce. However, modern application of the theory might be seen in elementary classrooms where the teacher models problem-solving strategies in math that can help the learner to develop critical thinking skills. Modeling behavior is very common in higher ed, particularly in the skilled trades, STEM fields, service industries, and medical studies, where the “see one, do one, teach one” method is common. Students learn by observing the model, practicing the actions, and then teaching their newfound skills to their peers (TechTarget, n.d.).
Fundamental Tenets of the Theory
“Through others, we become ourselves.” -Lev Vygotsky, Social Development Theorist
Social Learning Theory is based on the concept that individuals learn by observing and imitating the behaviors of others, as well as by observing their surroundings. An individual who demonstrates behavior for others to mimic is called the model. Learners who replicate the model’s behavior are participating in a process called observational learning. Unlike behaviorism, cognition plays a significant role in the learning process. Indeed, people do not consistently demonstrate the expected responses to these stimuli, which is where the cognitive element enters the picture. However, each person can be affected by each of these elements, as well as the behaviors of peers. Unnoticed stimuli play no part in the learning process. Therefore, it is crucial to attract the attention of the learner.
The Four Key Components that Comprise Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
- Attention: The learner must notice the model and then pay attention to the model’s actions. Gaining attention is improved when the model is attractive, popular, or similar to the learner. With that said, charisma certainly plays a significant role in this model. Distinctive and emotionally charged behaviors also draw attention, whether good or bad, and help learners move to the second component stage. Interestingly, the learner’s mental state can also play a role, and tired, distracted students are less likely to pay attention to the model.
- Retention: The learner must mentally retain the model’s actions. Retention is achieved when the learner transfers their new knowledge into long-term memory. Should the model demonstrate actions that tap into an existing schema, the learning will prove more manageable for the learners to absorb and remember.
- Reproduction: The learner must reproduce the model’s actions. This process hinges on the learner’s ability to organize and recall the model’s behavior cognitively.
- Motivation: The learner must receive positive feedback that enhances their learning and encourages them to continue. However, motivation is pointless when the learner is unaware of rewards for successfully reproducing the desired behavior. Self-efficacy can play a significant role at this stage – the learner must understand that they can succeed.
Vignette: Gaining Attention
Ms. Carter, a high school chemistry teacher, knows that getting students to pay attention is the first step in learning. Instead of just lecturing about chemical reactions, she performs an exciting experiment, mixing vinegar and baking soda to create a dramatic volcanic eruption. The students lean in, eyes wide, completely engaged. The next day, several students excitedly replicate the experiment at home and bring videos to class.
“The greatest sign of success for a teacher is to be able to say, ‘The children are now working as if I did not exist.’” -Maria Montessori, Montessori Method FounderRewards for behavior must be understood and expected by the learner for the modeling to have the desired effect. This understanding has been dubbed outcome expectancy. This type of reinforcement, reminiscent of operant conditioning, also works with punishments. Self-regulation remains a key factor in Bandura’s work. Learners who can grant themselves internal rewards or punishments are more likely to achieve the desired learning outcomes successfully. These factors lead to motivational improvements.
Bandura’s Famous Bobo the Doll Experiment
This famous experiment has become a virtual trope that represents the theory. People typically remember this when they think of Bandura and Social Learning Theory. Bandura set up a playroom with various toys to prove that aggression and violent behavior could be transferred to children, as shown by the model’s example. One of the toys was a “knock-em sock-em” inflatable doll with a counterweight in the bottom. Shaped roughly like a bowling pin, the doll would correct itself, only to be socked again. Many people who are old enough may recall the television ads for this toy. Children who’d seen the ad, should it have properly gained their attention, would have witnessed it being repeatedly punched by ecstatic child actors. The original doll was named “Bobo the Fighting Clown” and was marketed in 1962 by Lewis Galoob Toys, as seen in the vintage ad below (Figure 1) as item “C,” and was grouped with other boxing-themed toys.
Figure 2. “Bobo” Fighting Clown shown in a printed advertisement. Note. From a 1962 Ad [Vintage advertisement], in the public domain.
The model, Bandura himself, entered the room and began to strike the doll, evoking a hostile demeanor toward the toy in plain view of the children. He then received praise from someone else and allowed the children to take turns with the toy. The children began to strike the toy, following Bandura’s observed actions. While the toy itself is not enormously compelling, the children received praise for striking the doll, encouraging them to continue to exhibit hostile behavior toward it.
However, some might question the actual emotional engagement of the children or whether they indeed felt hostility, anger, or other untoward emotions while attacking it. They did, however, follow Bandura’s modeling, and that part of the experiment can be considered a success. While emotions can increase attention to a model’s behavior, Social Learning Theory does not require an emotional connection for learning to occur. Observational learning relies on attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation but does not necessarily require emotional involvement.
Strengths and Limitations of the Theory
Social Learning Theory offers significant strengths concerning the rapid acquisition of skills. It might provide substantial advantages in mirroring behaviors that require the learner to perform a task demonstrated by the model. This is especially useful in the skilled trades and other domains where an instructor must teach a desirable skill or action. The instructor can visually validate successful performance, although more complex tasks require practice. An instructor can also take this opportunity to engage in guided interventions of performances that fall short of the mark.
However, factors outside the learner’s control, such as biological issues or cultural biases, may add difficulty when attempting to follow the instructor’s example. Additionally, the theory offers no support for creative tasks carried out mentally before being realized externally. The theory is also best used when the learner can observe the model’s behavior. Behavior that cannot be observed is useless. Therefore, the instructor must choose battles wisely and understand where to use this theory in their didactic process.
Vignette: Limitations – Bad Models, Bad Learning
During a high school debate club practice, some students begin using aggressive and dismissive tones when arguing, mimicking a popular debate show host they watch online. The coach struggles to correct their behavior, as they’ve already internalized the poor model. Instead of fostering logical argumentation and respect, the students continue reinforcing combative speech patterns, showing how negative modeling can reinforce undesirable behaviors.
Instructional Design Implications
For instructional design, we must understand that the student can learn extensively by observing others in their vicinity. Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1961) point out that learners take behavioral cues from those that they observe. The study concluded that the influence exhibited by behavioral role models typically carries over into the behaviors of the learners, highlighting the importance of modeling desirable actions, behaviors, and attitudes. It is vital that the instructor model the types of behavior that they wish their learners to adopt. However, it’s also important for the teacher to explain why their actions were reasonable and to describe the rewards and punishments for good and poor performance accordingly. Effective modeling in learning should not simply encourage mimicry of the observed behavior but should help learners understand when and why they should apply the behavior. This helps to ensure that the learning exceeds mere imitation.
“Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience.” -David Kolb, Experiential Learning Theorist
It is critical that teachers attempt to form an image and be the type of person that learners wish to emulate. Bandura (1986) suggests that learners are more likely to pay attention to and imitate models whom they perceive as being competent, relatable, or socially relevant. Charisma can enhance a teacher’s ability to capture student attention, but perceived expertise, teacher enthusiasm, and a connection to learner’s cultural backgrounds may positively affect the student’s desire to emulate the model’s behavior. Additionally, teachers should reassure students that they, too, can perform the modeled actions, as self-efficacy is vital in determining whether a learner will attempt and persist in a task. Educators can help students develop both the confidence and motivation needed to succeed with a supportive learning environment and attention to encouraging resilience.
Vignette: SLT Doesn’t Work Well for Abstract or Independent Thinking
Professor Ellis assigns her philosophy students an essay on ethics, expecting them to craft original arguments. She provides them with sample essays but notices that many students simply imitate the structure and reasoning of the samples instead of developing their own ideas. Without clear models, some students struggle to apply ethical theories creatively, highlighting how observational learning is less effective for abstract reasoning tasks.
Thinking About Social Learning Theory
Educators are often familiar with case studies related to various topics or theories. The case study below invites you to critically analyze Social Learning Theory by exploring how it might address issues in a graduate-level academic setting. The case below highlights a common challenge in online education — creating meaningful learning experiences in an online learning community where students are separated. The questions posed here are meant to elicit thoughts about how integrating technology can facilitate social learning to enhance learning.
Case Study: Fostering Collaborative Learning in an Online Graduate Program: Applying Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Situation/Problem:
In an online Master’s program in Educational Technology, instructors observed that students often engaged in surface-level participation during asynchronous discussions. Despite the provision of discussion forums and group projects, meaningful peer interaction and deep engagement with the course material were lacking. This limited interaction hindered the development of a learning community and reduced opportunities for observational learning, a key component of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (SLT). Students reported feeling isolated and expressed difficulties in applying theoretical concepts to practical scenarios.
Institutional Context:
The program is offered by a mid-sized university with a commitment to providing flexible learning opportunities for working professionals. Recognizing the importance of social learning in professional development, the university encourages the integration of collaborative tools and pedagogies that promote interaction among students. However, the shift to online learning environments has presented challenges in replicating the spontaneous interactions that occur in traditional classroom settings.
Departmental Context:
The Department of Educational Technology aims to equip educators with the skills to integrate technology into their teaching practices effectively. Faculty members are experienced in online instruction and are aware of the potential for technology to facilitate social learning. Despite this, there has been a reliance on traditional discussion forums, which may not fully leverage the capabilities of modern collaborative tools to enhance observational learning and self-efficacy among students.
Instructional Design Context:
To address these challenges, the instructional design team proposed the integration of synchronous video conferencing sessions and the use of collaborative platforms that allow for real-time interaction. These sessions are designed to model problem-solving strategies, encourage peer observation, and provide immediate feedback, aligning with the key components of SLT:
- Observation: Students observe peers and instructors demonstrating tasks.
- Attention: Engaging activities capture student focus.
- Retention: Discussions and recordings help retain information.
- Reproduction: Opportunities to practice observed behaviors.
- Motivation: Positive reinforcement to encourage participation.
Additionally, the design includes peer review assignments and group projects that require collaborative problem-solving, fostering a community of practice where students can learn from each other’s experiences.
Critical Analysis Questions:
- How can synchronous and asynchronous tools be effectively combined to enhance observational learning in online environments?
- What strategies can be employed to ensure that all students are motivated to participate actively in collaborative activities?
- In what ways can instructors model behaviors that promote self-efficacy and deeper engagement with course content?
- How can the effectiveness of these instructional design interventions be assessed in terms of student learning outcomes and satisfaction?
- What are the potential challenges in implementing these strategies, and how can they be mitigated?
Conclusion
Social Learning Theory focuses on activities where learners have the opportunity, if attention is gained, to mimic the instructor’s actions. The see-it-do-it strategy in SLT is a powerful tool in the skilled trades, medical sciences, and more. While this theory was tested with schoolchildren, the benefits easily apply to learners of any age. Learners can acquire knowledge by observation and interaction with the learning environment. This realization and consideration for instructional design will lend us significant potency when advanced technologies that benefit from observational learning begin to saturate the learning spaces.
In particular, alternate reality technology offers remarkable opportunities to apply social learning theory, which may be one of the building blocks for studies based on the cognitive apprenticeship model. Not only will learners see, in virtual space, the model for their actions, but they’ll be able to practice non-destructively and at will. And should they desire, they can even test the Bobo experiment for themselves in virtual space.
Self-Assessment
References
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), 575–582. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0045925
Neal Miller. (2021, February). Neal Miller. https://nealmiller.org/?page_id=82.
TechTarget. (n.d.). SODOTO (See One, Do One, Teach One). TechTarget | WhatIs.com. https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/SODOTO
Licenses and Attribution
“Bandura’s Social Learning Theory” by Andrew Egbert is adapted from “Chapter 12: Bandura – Social Learning Theory” by M. Kelland, used under a CC BY 4.0 license, and “3. Social Cognitive Theory” by M. Kellend, used under a CC BY NC SA 4.0 license. “Bandura’s Social Learning Theory” is licensed under CC BY 4.0.
